埃德加·德加(E.Degas 1834-1917)法国画家、雕塑家，生于法国巴黎，原名为埃德加·依列尔·日耳曼·德加（Edgar Hilaire Germain de Gas）。他曾在巴黎艺术学院（École des Beaux-Arts）学习绘画，德加富于创新的构图、细致的描绘和对动作的透彻表达使他成为17世纪晚期现代艺术的大师之一。他最著名的绘画题材包括芭蕾舞演员和其他女性、以及赛马。他通常被认为是属于印象派，但他的有些作品更具古典、现实主义或者浪漫主义画派风格。
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埃德加德加c。1850年代
德加出生在巴黎,法国,到一个中等富裕的家庭。他是最古老的五个孩子塞莱斯廷井德气体,a克里奥尔语从新奥尔良,路易斯安那州,奥古斯汀德气体,一个银行家。他的外祖父日尔曼井,出生在太子港,海地的法国血统,在1810年定居在新奥尔良。德加(他收养了这个不那么冠冕堂皇的拼写,他的家人的名字,当他成为一个成年人)11岁时开始了他的教育,参加公立中学Louis-le-Grand。他13岁时母亲去世,他的父亲和祖父成为主要影响他剩余的青春。
德加在生命早期开始作画的。他的中学毕业高中毕业会考在文学1853,18岁时,他把他家里的一个房间里变成了艺术家的工作室。毕业后,他注册为一个抄写员卢浮宫博物馆,但他的父亲希望他去法学院。德加正式登记的法学院巴黎大学1853年11月,但应用小努力他的研究。1855年,他遇到了Jean-Auguste-Dominique安格尔,德加尊敬,他永远不会忘记的建议:“绘制线条的时候,需要年轻人,更行,来自生活和记忆,你会成为一个好的艺术家。同年4月德加被美术学院。他学习绘画路易定位之后,在他的指导下他繁荣,安格尔的风格。1856年7月,德加前往意大利,在那里他将继续在接下来的三年。1858年,虽然跟他姑姑的家庭住在一起那不勒斯,他的第一个研究他的早期作品Bellelli家族。他还画和画许多作品的副本米开朗基罗,拉斐尔,提香和其他文艺复兴时期的艺术家,但传统的练习,他通常选择从一个祭坛的装饰品,一个细节引起了他的注意:第二个图,或一头他视为一个肖像。
在他1859年回到法国德搬到巴黎工作室足以允许他开始画于Bellelli家庭的她正是实施帆布用于展览的沙龙直到1867年,尽管它仍未完成。他也开始在几个工作历史题材的绘画作品:亚历山大和骑用马和1859 - 60;耶弗他的女儿塞米勒米斯建造巴比伦;1860年,年轻的斯巴达人1860左右。1861年德参观了他儿时的朋友保罗Valpincon诺曼底,最早的马。他的许多研究他在沙龙展出第一次在1865年,当陪审团接受他的画在中世纪的战争,也没有引起多少注意。尽管他每年在沙龙展出在接下来的五年中,他不再提交历史画,和他Steeplechase-The下降骑师(1866)沙龙暗示他越来越致力于当代主题。他的艺术影响的变化主要的例子爱德华。马奈在1864年,德加了(虽然都是复制相同的委拉斯凯兹肖像在卢浮宫,根据这个故事可能是虚构的)。
的爆发普法战争1870年,德加加入了国民警卫队,巴黎他的防守让他没有时间画画。在步枪训练他的视力缺陷被发现,和自己的余生一直担心他他的眼睛问题。
棉花办公室在新奥尔良,1873年
战争结束后,德加1872年开始扩展新奥尔良,路易斯安那州,他的弟弟Rene和其他一些亲戚住。呆在家里他的克里奥尔语的叔叔,米歇尔•井滨海大道,德加了大量的作品,许多描述家庭成员。新奥尔良德加的作品,棉花办公室在新奥尔良在法国,获得良好的注意力,是他唯一的一个博物馆(购买的工作加索尔在他的一生中。
德加回到巴黎,1873年父亲去世后第二年,于是德知道他哥哥Rene已经积累了巨大的商业债务。为了保护他的家族声誉,德加卖掉了他的房子,他继承了一个艺术收藏,和他兄弟用这笔钱偿还的债务。他平生第一次依赖他的艺术品的销售收入,他创作了他最伟大的工作在1874年开始的十年。对现在的沙龙,他加入了一群年轻的艺术家组织是一个独立的展示社会。很快就被称为印象派画家。在1874年和1886年之间他们安装八艺术节目,称为印象派展览。德加在组织展览、主导作用和显示他的工作但他们其中的一个,尽管他持续的与他人的冲突。他几乎没有共同点莫奈,另一组风景画家,他嘲笑为绘画在户外。在他的社会态度保守,他憎恶丑闻造成的展览,以及他的同事们寻求的宣传和广告。他还深深厌恶与术语“印象派”,媒体所创造和推广,坚持包括non-Impressionist艺术家等jean - louis Forain和让Raffaelli在该集团的展览。集团内部产生的仇恨导致1886年解散。
作为他的财务状况改善通过自己的销售工作,他可以纵容他对收集的作品艺术热情他钦佩:大师等格列柯和同时代的人如马奈,毕沙罗,塞尚,高更,梵高,爱德华布兰登。三位艺术家他崇拜,安格尔,德拉克洛瓦,Daumier,尤其表现在他的收藏。
在1880年代末,德加也开发了一种对摄影的热情。他拍摄他的许多朋友,经常通过灯光,如他的双重肖像雷诺阿和马拉美。其他照片,描绘舞者和裸体,被用于参考德加的一些素描和油画。
随着岁月的流逝,德加成为孤立的,部分原因是他认为一个画家可以没有个人生活。德雷福斯事件把他的争议反犹太主义倾向的,他打破了所有的犹太朋友。他好辩的本质被雷诺阿的谴责,他说他:“他真是一个生物,德加!他所有的朋友不得不离开他,我是最后一个去,但即使我不能保持到最后。”
虽然大家都知道他一直在工作柔和的直到1907年底,被认为是继续做雕塑直到1910年,他停止工作在1912年,当时即将拆迁的长期居留街维克多一起迫使他搬到季度克利希林荫道.他从未结婚,度过了他生命的最后几年,几乎失明,不安地在巴黎的大街上游荡之前死于1917年9月。
舞蹈类(La架势de死亡),1873 - 1876,油画,埃德加德加
德加通常会将其作为一个印象派一个可以理解的,但描述不足。印象派起源于1870年代和1860年代和成长,在某种程度上,这样的现实主义画家及库尔贝和柯罗。周围的印象派画家画的现实世界使用明亮、耀眼的颜色,主要集中在光的影响,希望注入与即时性的场景。他们想表达他们看到确切的时刻。
从技术上讲,德加与的印象派画家的不同之处在于,他不断地贬低他们的绘画练习在练习.“他经常anti-impressionist评论家评论显示”,据艺术历史学家卡罗尔·阿姆斯特朗;正如德加自己解释说,“没有比我的艺术是自然越来越少。我所做的是反思和研究的大师,灵感、自发性、气质,我什么都不知道。”尽管如此,他更准确地描述作为一个印象派比其他任何运动的成员。巴黎生活的场景,他歪成分,与颜色和形式他的实验,他与几个关键印象派artists-most特别是友谊玛丽卡萨特和爱德华。马奈——与他密切印象派运动。
德加的风格反映了他深尊重大师(他是一个热情的抄写员到中年)[27]和他的伟大的钦佩Jean-Auguste-Dominique安格尔和尤金·德拉克洛瓦。他也是一个收集器日本打印,他的创作原则影响了他的工作,等流行的插图画家的有力的现实主义Daumier和Gavar。虽然著名的马和舞者,德加等传统历史画始于耶弗他的女儿(c.1859 - 61)和年轻的斯巴达人(c.1860 - 62),他的逐步进展不太理想的治疗图已经明显。在他早期的职业生涯中,德加个人和团体画像,后者的一个例子Bellelli家族(c.1858 - 67),由心理而精辟深刻的描绘他的阿姨,她的丈夫和孩子。在这幅画里,就像年轻的斯巴达人,许多后来的作品,德加了男性和女性之间存在的紧张关系。在他早期的作品,德加已经证明他后来开发的成风格更充分地裁剪对象尴尬和选择不同寻常的观点。
苦艾酒油画,1876年,埃德加德加
到了1860年代末德加从他最初的历史绘画转向当代生活的原始观察。赛马场场景提供了一个机会来描述马和骑手在现代环境中。他开始描绘女性在工作中,女帽和洗衣妇,。Mlle. Fiocre芭蕾舞的来源,在1868年的沙龙,是他的第一个主要工作介绍一个主题,他会变得特别确认,舞者。
在后来许多绘画舞者显示后台彩排,强调了他们作为专业人士的地位做一份工作。从1870年德加越来越画芭蕾舞主题,部分原因是他们卖的不错,给他提供了所需的收入在他哥哥的债务已经离开了家庭破产。德加开始油漆咖啡馆生活,工作等苦艾酒手套和歌手。他的作品经常暗示叙事内容的方式非常模棱两可;例如,室内(也被称为奸)艺术历史学家提出了一个难题——寻找一个文学的来源苔丽被建议[30],但它可能是一个卖淫的描述。
随着他的主题的改变,所以,德加的技术。黑暗的调色板的荷兰绘画的影响了使用鲜艳的色彩和大胆的笔触。绘画等协和广场解读为“快照”,冻结时间准确描绘的时候,传授一种运动。缺乏颜色1874芭蕾舞排练阶段和1876年的芭蕾舞老师可以说与他对摄影的新技术的兴趣。改变他的调色板,绘画,和组成所有证据的影响,包括印象派运动和现代摄影,自然图像和不规则的角度,对他的工作。
协和广场油画,1875年,埃德加德加,赫米蒂奇博物馆圣彼得堡,
模糊的肖像画和之间的区别类型,他画他巴颂吹奏者的朋友,渴望Dihau,乐团的歌剧(1868 - 69)作为一个十四岁的音乐家在乐池,认为尽管观众的成员。音乐家可以看到上面只有腿和芭蕾舞裙的舞者在舞台上,他们的画的边缘出现的数据。艺术历史学家查尔斯·斯塔基的观点相比,分散了观众的芭蕾,并说“这是德加的对运动的描述,包括观众的眼睛的运动在一个随机的目光,这是确切的说“印象派”。
在乐团音乐家,1872年,布面油画,埃德加德加
德加的成熟风格的特点是明显未完成的文章,否则即使在严格呈现绘画。他经常指责他的眼睛问题无法完成,一个解释,会见了一些同事的怀疑和收藏者认为,斯塔基解释说,“他的照片几乎不可能被执行的任何不足的愿景”。]艺术家提供了另一条线索,他描述了他偏爱“开始一百年的事情,而不是完成其中一个”,在任何情况下,出了名的不愿意考虑一幅画完成。
他的肖像画的兴趣使德加仔细研究一个人的社会地位的方式或形式就业可能揭示了他们地貌、姿势、衣服和其他属性。在他1879年的肖像,在证券交易所,他描绘了一群犹太商人的反犹太主义。1881年,他表现出两个彩笔,刑事如若,描述青少年帮派成员最近在“Abadie事件”被定罪的谋杀。德加参加过他们的审判手里拿着速写本,和他的许多图纸被告透露他的兴趣隔代遗传的功能被一些19世纪科学家认为是天生的犯罪行为的证据。舞者和洗衣妇,在他的画中,他揭示了他们的职业不仅通过衣着和活动,而且通过他们的身体类型:他的芭蕾舞演员表现出一个运动身体,而他的洗衣妇,沉重和固体。
比赛,1877 - 1880年,布面油画,埃德加德加,奥赛博物馆、巴黎
到1870年代后德不仅掌握了传统的媒介石油在帆布,但淡。干燥介质,应用于复杂的层和纹理,使他更容易调和他的设施与富有表现力的颜色越来越感兴趣。
在1870年代中期,他也回到了媒介蚀刻,忽视了十年。起初他引导了他的老朋友Ludovic-Napoleon Lepic自己一个创新者在其使用,并开始尝试光刻技术和单型.
他创作了一些300单型超过两个时期,从1870年代中期到1880年代中期和1890年代早期。[37]
他特别着迷于铅字产生的影响,与柔和的频繁修改了打印图像。雕塑已经成为一个链,到1880年,德加的持续努力探索不同的媒体,尽管艺术家一生只有一个雕塑公开显示。
La打扮(女人梳理她的头发),c。1884 - 1886年,蜡笔在纸上,通过埃德加德加,赫米蒂奇博物馆圣彼得堡,
这些变化在媒体产生德加的画作将产生在晚年。德加开始画,画女性干燥自己带着毛巾、梳头、洗澡(见:浴后,女人干自己)。模型形式的中风是比以前更自由地潦草;背景简化。
细致的自然主义的青年越来越抽象的形式。除了他的典型辉煌的制图术和痴迷图,图片中创建这个他生命的晚期熊小他早期绘画的表面上的相似之处。具有讽刺意味的是,正是这些绘画,创造了在他的生活,后印象派运动的鼎盛时期,最明显的是印象派的使用对各种色彩的处理技术。作品仍然相同的终其一生。他总是画室内,而是在他的工作工作室,从记忆、照片、或生活模式。[39]这个数字依然是他的主要话题,他的一些景观是由记忆或想象。这不是不寻常的他多次重复一个话题,不同成分或治疗。他是一个协商的艺术家的作品,安德鲁•打造写了“准备、计算、实践,开发的阶段。他们组成的部分。每个部分的调整,其线性排列,是无限的思考和实验的场合。”德加自己解释说,“在艺术,没有什么应该类似于机会,甚至运动”。
德加的雕塑一生只显示当他表现出发生在1881年的十四年的舞者。近真人大小的蜡像与真正的头发,穿着布图图,它从批评引发了强烈反应,其中大多数发现其现实主义非同寻常但指责舞蹈家是丑陋的。[41]在审查,j。Huysmans写道:“这个雕像的可怕的现实显然观众产生不安,他们所有的观念雕塑,那些冷无生命的白……在这里推翻。事实是,与他的第一次尝试德先生已经彻底改变了传统的雕塑,他早就动摇了绘画的约定。”
德加了大量的其他雕塑在40年的时间,但他们仍然被公众看不见的直到1918年死后的展览。十四年的小舞蹈家和德加的其他雕塑艺术家的一生期间用青铜铸的。德加学者们一致认为,绘画雕塑没有创建为艾滋病,虽然连接图形的艺术家习惯性地探索艺术和油画,绘画和粉彩、雕塑和摄影。德加分配意义的雕塑一样画:“画是一种思维方式,造型”
德加死后,他的继承人中发现他的工作室150蜡雕塑,许多年久失修。他们咨询了铸造所有者阿德里安·Hebrard,得出的结论是,74年的蜡可以用青铜铸的。假设,除了十四岁小舞者,德加青铜器在世界范围内都是演员surmoulages(fr)(即。,从青铜铸造大师)。surmoulage青铜有点小,显示更少的表面细节,比原来的铜模具。Hebrard铸造厂铸造的青铜器从1919年到1936年,并于1937年关闭,前不久Hebrard的死亡。
2004年2004年,一群名不见经传的石膏,或多或少像是德加的原始蜡雕塑,已经发现了在材料购买的从Hebrard Airaindor铸造(后来称为Airaindor-Valsuani)的后裔。从这些膏药青铜器铸造被Airaindor-Valsuani发布了2004年和2016年之间在版本不一致,因此未知的大小。已经有大量的争论关于这些膏药的真实性以及他们创造的环境和日期作为其倡导者提出的。还有一些博物馆和学术专业人士接受他们,大部分的公认的德加学者拒绝置评。
自画像(照片),c。1895
德加,他们相信“艺术家必须独自生活,和他的私人生活必须保持未知”,[46]住着一位外表平淡无奇的生活。在公司他以他的智慧,往往是残酷的。他被描述成一个“老吝啬鬼”的小说家乔治•摩尔,[46]他有意培养他的声誉作为一个厌恶人类的单身汉。[21]极度保守的在他的政治观点,他反对所有社会改革,发现小崇拜在电话等技术的进步。他解雇了一个模型在学习她新教.[46]虽然德加画许多犹太主题从1865年到1870年,他的反犹太主义由1870年代中期变得明显。他1879年的绘画在证券交易所被广泛认为是反犹太人,银行家的面部特征直接取自吗反犹太主义当时在巴黎漫画猖獗。
的德雷福斯事件巴黎,分裂从1890年代到1890年代早期,进一步加剧了他的反犹太主义。到1890年代中期,他打破了他所有的犹太朋友关系,[20]与犹太艺术家公开否认他之前的友谊,拒绝使用模型,他认为可能是犹太人。他仍然直言不讳的反犹份子和反犹太人的成员“Anti-Dreyfusards”直到他的死亡。
1900年的舞者,普林斯顿大学艺术博物馆
一生中,公共接待德加的作品范围从崇拜到轻视。作为一个有前途的艺术家在传统模式中,德加的画作接受1865年和1870年之间的沙龙。这些作品得到的赞扬皮埃尔Puvis de通知和评论家Jules-Antoine Castagnary.[49]不过,他很快与印象派画家,并拒绝了严格的规则,判断,和精英主义Salon-just沙龙和公众最初拒绝了印象派画家的经验主义。
德加的作品是有争议的,但一般都是羡慕的制图术。他的La娇小女芭蕾舞演员常理判断de夸托尔泽答或小舞者十四年,他在1881年第六届印象派画展,显示可能是最有争议的作品,一些批评人士指责他们所认为的“可怕的丑陋”而其他人看到它“开花”。
套件的彩笔描绘裸体,德加在1886年第八届印象派画展展出了“最集中的关键写艺术家一生……整个反应是积极和赞美的。”
被认为是一个重要的艺术家在他有生之年,德加现在被认为是“印象派的创始人之一”。尽管他的作品跨越许多文体界限,他参与印象派的其他主要人物和他们的展览,他的日常生活和活动的动态绘画和素描,和他的大胆的颜色实验,终于把他绑在印象派运动是最伟大的艺术家之一。
尽管德加没有正式的学生,他极大地影响了几个重要的画家,最明显jean - louis Forain,玛丽卡萨特,沃尔特Sickert;[54]他最大的崇拜者Henri de图卢兹.
德加的绘画、彩笔、绘画和雕塑是在许多博物馆展示,并被许多博物馆展览的主题和回顾。最近的展览包括德加:素描和速写(摩根图书馆,毕加索看着德加(2010);位于毕加索巴塞罗那,2010);德加和裸体波士顿美术博物馆,2011)、德加的方法(纽约嘉士伯Glyptotek2013),德加的小舞蹈家(国家美术馆的艺术,华盛顿特区,2014)。
Degas was born in Paris, France, into a moderately wealthy family. He was the oldest of five children of Célestine Musson De Gas, a Creole from New Orleans, Louisiana, and Augustin De Gas, a banker. His maternal grandfather Germain Musson, was born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti of French descent and had settled in New Orleans in 1810.[4] Degas (he adopted this less grandiose spelling of his family name when he became an adult)[5] began his schooling at age eleven, enrolling in the Lycée Louis-le-Grand. His mother died when he was thirteen, and his father and grandfather became the main influences on him for the remainder of his youth.
Degas began to paint early in life. By the time he graduated from the Lycée with abaccalauréat in literature in 1853, at age 18, he had turned a room in his home into an artist's studio. Upon graduating, he registered as a copyist in The Louvre Museum, but his father expected him to go to law school. Degas duly enrolled at the Faculty of Law of theUniversity of Paris in November 1853, but applied little effort to his studies. In 1855 he met Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, whom Degas revered and whose advice he never forgot: "Draw lines, young man, and still more lines, both from life and from memory, and you will become a good artist."[6] In April of that year Degas was admitted to the École des Beaux-Arts. He studied drawing there with Louis Lamothe, under whose guidance he flourished, following the style of Ingres.[7] In July 1856, Degas traveled to Italy, where he would remain for the next three years. In 1858, while staying with his aunt's family inNaples, he made the first studies for his early masterpiece The Bellelli Family. He also drew and painted numerous copies of works by Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, and other Renaissance artists, but—contrary to conventional practice—he usually selected from an altarpiece a detail that had caught his attention: a secondary figure, or a head which he treated as a portrait.[8]
Upon his return to France in 1859 Degas moved into a Paris studio large enough to permit him to begin painting The Bellelli Family—an imposing canvas he intended for exhibition in the Salon, although it remained unfinished until 1867. He also began work on several history paintings: Alexander and Bucephalus and The Daughter of Jephthah in 1859–60; Sémiramis Building Babylon in 1860; and Young Spartans around 1860.[9] In 1861 Degas visited his childhood friend Paul Valpinçon in Normandy, and made the earliest of his many studies of horses. He exhibited at the Salon for the first time in 1865, when the jury accepted his painting Scene of War in the Middle Ages, which attracted little attention.[10] Although he exhibited annually in the Salon during the next five years, he submitted no more history paintings, and his Steeplechase—The Fallen Jockey (Salon of 1866) signaled his growing commitment to contemporary subject matter. The change in his art was influenced primarily by the example of Édouard Manet, whom Degas had met in 1864 (while both were copying the same Velázquez portrait in the Louvre, according to a story that may be apocryphal).[11]
Upon the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Degas enlisted in the National Guard, where his defense of Paris left him little time for painting. During rifle training his eyesight was found to be defective, and for the rest of his life his eye problems were a constant worry to him.[12]
After the war, Degas began in 1872 an extended stay in New Orleans, Louisiana, where his brother René and a number of other relatives lived. Staying at the home of his Creole uncle, Michel Musson, on Esplanade Avenue,[13] Degas produced a number of works, many depicting family members. One of Degas's New Orleans works, A Cotton Office in New Orleans, garnered favorable attention back in France, and was his only work purchased by a museum (the Pau) during his lifetime.
Degas returned to Paris in 1873 and his father died the following year, whereupon Degas learned that his brother René had amassed enormous business debts. To preserve his family's reputation, Degas sold his house and an art collection he had inherited, and used the money to pay off his brother's debts. Dependent for the first time in his life on sales of his artwork for income, he produced much of his greatest work during the decade beginning in 1874.[14] Disenchanted by now with the Salon, he instead joined a group of young artists who were organizing an independent exhibiting society. The group soon became known as the Impressionists. Between 1874 and 1886 they mounted eight art shows, known as the Impressionist Exhibitions. Degas took a leading role in organizing the exhibitions, and showed his work in all but one of them, despite his persistent conflicts with others in the group. He had little in common with Monet and the other landscape painters in the group, whom he mocked for painting outdoors. Conservative in his social attitudes, he abhorred the scandal created by the exhibitions, as well as the publicity and advertising that his colleagues sought.[1] He also deeply disliked being associated with the term "Impressionist", which the press had coined and popularized, and insisted on including non-Impressionist artists such as Jean-Louis Forain and Jean-François Raffaëlli in the group's exhibitions. The resulting rancor within the group contributed to its disbanding in 1886.[15]
As his financial situation improved through sales of his own work, he was able to indulge his passion for collecting works by artists he admired: old masters such as El Greco and such contemporaries as Manet, Pissarro, Cézanne, Gauguin, Van Gogh, andÉdouard Brandon. Three artists he idolized, Ingres, Delacroix, and Daumier, were especially well represented in his collection.[16]
In the late 1880s, Degas also developed a passion for photography.[17] He photographed many of his friends, often by lamplight, as in his double portrait of Renoir and Mallarmé. Other photographs, depicting dancers and nudes, were used for reference in some of Degas's drawings and paintings.[18]
As the years passed, Degas became isolated, due in part to his belief that a painter could have no personal life.[19] TheDreyfus Affair controversy brought his anti-Semitic leanings to the fore and he broke with all his Jewish friends.[20] His argumentative nature was deplored by Renoir, who said of him: "What a creature he was, that Degas! All his friends had to leave him; I was one of the last to go, but even I couldn't stay till the end."[21]
Although he is known to have been working in pastel as late as the end of 1907, and is believed to have continued making sculptures as late as 1910, he apparently ceased working in 1912, when the impending demolition of his longtime residence on the rue Victor Massé forced him to move to quarters on Boulevard de Clichy.[22] He never married and spent the last years of his life, nearly blind, restlessly wandering the streets of Paris before dying in September 1917.[23]
Degas is often identified as an Impressionist, an understandable but insufficient description. Impressionism originated in the 1860s and 1870s and grew, in part, from the realism of such painters as Courbet and Corot. The Impressionists painted the realities of the world around them using bright, "dazzling" colors, concentrating primarily on the effects of light, and hoping to infuse their scenes with immediacy. They wanted to express what they saw in that exact moment.
Technically, Degas differs from the Impressionists in that he continually belittled their practice of painting en plein air.[24] "He was often as anti-impressionist as the critics who reviewed the shows", according to art historian Carol Armstrong; as Degas himself explained, "no art was ever less spontaneous than mine. What I do is the result of reflection and of the study of the great masters; of inspiration, spontaneity, temperament, I know nothing."[25] Nonetheless, he is described more accurately as an Impressionist than as a member of any other movement. His scenes of Parisian life, his off-center compositions, his experiments with color and form, and his friendship with several key Impressionist artists—most notably Mary Cassatt and Édouard Manet—all relate him intimately to the Impressionist movement.[26]
Degas's style reflects his deep respect for the old masters (he was an enthusiastic copyist well into middle age)[27] and his great admiration for Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Eugène Delacroix. He was also a collector of Japanese prints, whose compositional principles influenced his work, as did the vigorous realism of popular illustrators such as Daumier and Gavarni. Although famous for horses and dancers, Degas began with conventional historical paintings such as The Daughter of Jephthah(c.1859–61) and The Young Spartans (c.1860–62), in which his gradual progress toward a less idealized treatment of the figure is already apparent. During his early career, Degas also painted portraits of individuals and groups; an example of the latter is The Bellelli Family (c.1858–67), a brilliantly composed and psychologically poignant portrayal of his aunt, her husband, and their children. In this painting, as in The Young Spartans and many later works, Degas was drawn to the tensions present between men and women. In his early paintings, Degas already evidenced the mature style that he would later develop more fully by cropping subjects awkwardly and by choosing unusual viewpoints.
By the late 1860s Degas had shifted from his initial forays into history painting to an original observation of contemporary life. Racecourse scenes provided an opportunity to depict horses and their riders in a modern context. He began to paint women at work, milliners and laundresses.Mlle. Fiocre in the Ballet La Source, exhibited in the Salon of 1868, was his first major work to introduce a subject with which he would become especially identified, dancers.[28]
In many subsequent paintings dancers were shown backstage or in rehearsal, emphasizing their status as professionals doing a job. From 1870 Degas increasingly painted ballet subjects, partly because they sold well and provided him with needed income after his brother's debts had left the family bankrupt.[29] Degas began to paint café life as well, in works such as L'Absinthe andSinger with a Glove. His paintings often hinted at narrative content in a way that was highly ambiguous; for example, Interior (which has also been called The Rape) has presented a conundrum to art historians in search of a literary source—Thérèse Raquin has been suggested[30]—but it may be a depiction of prostitution.[31]
As his subject matter changed, so, too, did Degas's technique. The dark palette that bore the influence of Dutch painting gave way to the use of vivid colors and bold brushstrokes. Paintings such as Place de la Concorderead as "snapshots," freezing moments of time to portray them accurately, imparting a sense of movement. The lack of color in the 1874 Ballet Rehearsal on Stage and the 1876 The Ballet Instructor can be said to link with his interest in the new technique of photography. The changes to his palette, brushwork, and sense of composition all evidence the influence that both the Impressionist movement and modern photography, with its spontaneous images and off-kilter angles, had on his work.[26]Blurring the distinction between portraiture and genre pieces, he painted his bassoonist friend, Désiré Dihau, in The Orchestra of the Opera (1868–69) as one of fourteen musicians in an orchestra pit, viewed as though by a member of the audience. Above the musicians can be seen only the legs and tutus of the dancers onstage, their figures cropped by the edge of the painting. Art historian Charles Stuckey has compared the viewpoint to that of a distracted spectator at a ballet, and says that "it is Degas' fascination with the depiction of movement, including the movement of a spectator's eyes as during a random glance, that is properly speaking 'Impressionist'."[32]
Degas's mature style is distinguished by conspicuously unfinished passages, even in otherwise tightly rendered paintings. He frequently blamed his eye troubles for his inability to finish, an explanation that met with some skepticism from colleagues and collectors who reasoned, as Stuckey explains, that "his pictures could hardly have been executed by anyone with inadequate vision".[12] The artist provided another clue when he described his predilection "to begin a hundred things and not finish one of them",[33] and was in any case notoriously reluctant to consider a painting complete.
His interest in portraiture led Degas to study carefully the ways in which a person's social stature or form of employment may be revealed by their physiognomy, posture, dress, and other attributes. In his 1879 Portraits, At the Stock Exchange, he portrayed a group of Jewish businessmen with a hint of anti-Semitism. In 1881 he exhibited two pastels, Criminal Physiognomies, that depicted juvenile gang members recently convicted of murder in the "Abadie Affair". Degas had attended their trial with sketchbook in hand, and his numerous drawings of the defendants reveal his interest in the atavistic features thought by some 19th-century scientists to be evidence of innate criminality.[34] In his paintings of dancers and laundresses, he reveals their occupations not only by their dress and activities but also by their body type: his ballerinas exhibit an athletic physicality, while his laundresses are heavy and solid.[35]
By the later 1870s Degas had mastered not only the traditional medium of oil on canvas, but pastel as well. The dry medium, which he applied in complex layers and textures, enabled him more easily to reconcile his facility for line with a growing interest in expressive color.
In the mid-1870s he also returned to the medium of etching, which he had neglected for ten years. At first he was guided in this by his old friend Ludovic-Napoléon Lepic, himself an innovator in its use, and began experimenting with lithography and monotype.[36]
He produced some 300 monotypes over two periods, from the mid-1870s to the mid-1880s and again in the early 1890s.[37]
He was especially fascinated by the effects produced by monotype and frequently reworked the printed images with pastel.[36] By 1880, sculpture had become one more strand to Degas's continuing endeavor to explore different media, although the artist displayed only one sculpture publicly during his lifetime.
These changes in media engendered the paintings that Degas would produce in later life. Degas began to draw and paint women drying themselves with towels, combing their hair, and bathing (see: After the Bath, Woman drying herself). The strokes that model the form are scribbled more freely than before; backgrounds are simplified.
The meticulous naturalism of his youth gave way to an increasing abstraction of form. Except for his characteristically brilliant draftsmanship and obsession with the figure, the pictures created in this late period of his life bear little superficial resemblance to his early paintings. Ironically, it is these paintings, created late in his life, and after the heyday of the Impressionist movement, that most obviously use the coloristic techniques of Impressionism.[38]
For all the stylistic evolution, certain features of Degas's work remained the same throughout his life. He always painted indoors, preferring to work in his studio, either from memory, photographs, or live models.[39] The figure remained his primary subject; his few landscapes were produced from memory or imagination. It was not unusual for him to repeat a subject many times, varying the composition or treatment. He was a deliberative artist whose works, as Andrew Forge has written, "were prepared, calculated, practiced, developed in stages. They were made up of parts. The adjustment of each part to the whole, their linear arrangement, was the occasion for infinite reflection and experiment."[40] Degas himself explained, "In art, nothing should look like chance, not even movement".[29]
Degas's only showing of sculpture during his life took place in 1881 when he exhibited TheLittle Dancer of Fourteen Years. A nearly life-size wax figure with real hair and dressed in a cloth tutu, it provoked a strong reaction from critics, most of whom found its realism extraordinary but denounced the dancer as ugly.[41] In a review, J.-K. Huysmans wrote: "The terrible reality of this statuette evidently produces uneasiness in the spectators; all their notions about sculpture, about those cold inanimate whitenesses ... are here overturned. The fact is that with his first attempt Monsieur Degas has revolutionized the traditions of sculpture as he has long since shaken the conventions of painting."[42]
Degas created a substantial number of other sculptures during a span of four decades, but they remained unseen by the public until a posthumous exhibition in 1918. Neither The Little Dancer of Fourteen Years nor any of Degas's other sculptures were cast in bronze during the artist's lifetime.[41] Degas scholars have agreed that the sculptures were not created as aids to painting, although the artist habitually explored ways of linking graphic art and oil painting, drawing and pastel, sculpture and photography. Degas assigned the same significance to sculpture as to drawing: "Drawing is a way of thinking, modelling another".[29]
After Degas's death, his heirs found in his studio 150 wax sculptures, many in disrepair. They consulted foundry owner Adrien Hébrard, who concluded that 74 of the waxes could be cast in bronze. It is assumed that, except for the Little Dancer Aged Fourteen, all Degas bronzes worldwide are cast from surmoulages (fr) (i.e., cast from bronze masters). Asurmoulage bronze is a bit smaller, and shows less surface detail, than its original bronze mold. The Hébrard Foundry cast the bronzes from 1919 until 1936, and closed down in 1937, shortly before Hébrard's death.
In 2004, a little-known group of 73 plaster casts, more or less closely resembling Degas's original wax sculptures, was presented as having been discovered among the materials bought by the Airaindor Foundry (later known as Airaindor-Valsuani) from Hébrard's descendants. Bronzes cast from these plasters were issued between 2004 and 2016 by Airaindor-Valsuani in editions inconsistently marked and thus of unknown size. There has been substantial controversy concerning the authenticity of these plasters as well as the circumstances and date of their creation as proposed by their promoters.[41][43] While several museum and academic professionals accept them as presented, most of the recognized Degas scholars have declined to comment.[44][45]
Degas, who believed that "the artist must live alone, and his private life must remain unknown",[46] lived an outwardly uneventful life. In company he was known for his wit, which could often be cruel. He was characterized as an "old curmudgeon" by the novelistGeorge Moore,[46] and he deliberately cultivated his reputation as a misanthropic bachelor.[21] Profoundly conservative in his political opinions, he opposed all social reforms and found little to admire in such technological advances as the telephone. He fired a model upon learning she was Protestant.[46] Although Degas painted a number of Jewish subjects from 1865 to 1870, his anti-Semitism became apparent by the mid-1870s. His 1879 painting At The Bourse is widely regarded as anti-Semitic, with the facial features of the banker taken directly from the anti-Semitic cartoons rampant in Paris at the time.[47]
The Dreyfus Affair, which divided Paris from the 1890s to the early 1900s, further intensified his anti-Semitism. By the mid-1890s, he had broken off relations with all of his Jewish friends,[20] publicly disavowed his previous friendships with Jewish artists, and refused to use models who he believed might be Jewish. He remained an outspoken anti-Semite and member of the anti-Semitic "Anti-Dreyfusards" until his death.[48]
During his life, public reception of Degas's work ranged from admiration to contempt. As a promising artist in the conventional mode, Degas had a number of paintings accepted in the Salon between 1865 and 1870. These works received praise from Pierre Puvis de Chavannesand the critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary.[49] He soon joined forces with the Impressionists, however, and rejected the rigid rules, judgments, and elitism of the Salon—just as the Salon and general public initially rejected the experimentalism of the Impressionists.
Degas's work was controversial, but was generally admired for its draftsmanship. His La Petite Danseuse de Quatorze Ans, or Little Dancer of Fourteen Years, which he displayed at the sixth Impressionist exhibition in 1881, was probably his most controversial piece; some critics decried what they thought its "appalling ugliness" while others saw in it a "blossoming".[50]
The suite of pastels depicting nudes that Degas exhibited in the eighth Impressionist Exhibition in 1886 produced "the most concentrated body of critical writing on the artist during his lifetime ... The overall reaction was positive and laudatory".[52]
Recognized as an important artist in his lifetime, Degas is now considered "one of the founders of Impressionism".[53] Though his work crossed many stylistic boundaries, his involvement with the other major figures of Impressionism and their exhibitions, his dynamic paintings and sketches of everyday life and activities, and his bold color experiments, served to finally tie him to the Impressionist movement as one of its greatest artists.
Although Degas had no formal pupils, he greatly influenced several important painters, most notably Jean-Louis Forain, Mary Cassatt, and Walter Sickert;[54] his greatest admirer may have been Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.[55]
Degas's paintings, pastels, drawings, and sculptures are on prominent display in many museums, and have been the subject of many museum exhibitions and retrospectives. Recent exhibitions include Degas: Drawings and Sketchbooks (The Morgan Library, 2010); Picasso Looks at Degas (Museu Picasso de Barcelona, 2010); Degas and the Nude (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2011);Degas' Method (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, 2013); and Degas's Little Dancer (National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., 2014).
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