1881年，章士钊生于湖南善化县。其父章锦曾在乡里为里正，后业中医。章士钊幼读私塾，非常勤奋。

英国留学时的章士钊13岁时在长沙买到一部《柳宗元文集》，从此攻读柳文。

16岁在亲戚家为童子师。

1901年离家赴武昌，寄读于武昌两湖书院，在此结识黄兴。后执教于朱启钤家私塾。

1902年3月，入南京陆师学堂学军事。次年进上海爱国学社。5月，任上海《苏报》主笔，由于该报连续登载章太炎等人的反清文章。7月被查封。8月他与陈独秀、张继等人又创办《国民日报》，建立大陆图书译印局。同年冬与黄兴等组织华兴会，从事反清活动。

1903年4月，拒俄运动发生，上海各学校学生罢课，章士钊不顾学堂总办俞明震劝阻，率陆师同学三十余人赴上海，加入蔡元培等人组织的军事民教育会，任军理教习[3] 。不久被聘为上海《苏报》主笔，经常发表激烈的革命言论，并因此结识了章太炎、张继、邹容，意气相投，结拜为异姓兄弟。四兄弟中，章太炎、张继、邹容均有鼓动革命的书籍。于是章士钊将日本人宫崎寅藏所作《三十三年落花梦》编译成《大革命家孙逸仙》一书，将孙之别名"中山樵"与姓氏连在一起。于是1903年9月用黄中黄的笔名刊行，国内由此书而知重孙中山。1903年7月初，清政府查封了《苏报》，并先后逮捕了章太炎、邹容等七人。章士钊因得主办此案的江苏候补道、陆师学堂总办俞明震徇情，未予追究，侥幸得脱。于8月7日又与陈独秀、张继等人创办了《国民日报》，并继续激烈章士钊珍贵照片集 地鼓吹革命。1903年11月，他与黄兴由上海赴长沙，酝酿华兴会的筹建工作[3] 。

1904年2月，与杨守仁等在上海建立爱国协会，任副会长。杨守仁为会长。1904年8月，华兴会决定当年11月6日在长沙举行起义。章在上海余庆里密设机关，暗中接济。因事机不密，未经发动即遭失败。10月，黄兴赴上海，召集杨守仁、陈天华、章士钊、张继、杨度等人开会，准备在湖北、南京等地再举义旗。后因发华兴会在余庆里的机关遭破坏，张继和章士钊等十余人被捕，再起义的计划未能实现。章士钊等人经蔡锷托人营救，被关押四十余天后，得以保释。出狱诸人恐清吏再行深究，急急东渡日本。

留学时期

1905年流亡日本，入东京正则学校习英语。章回顾过去，认为自己"才短力脆"，连累了同事，感到内疚，一改革命救国为求学救国，乃发愤力学[3] 。1905年8月，同盟会在日本东京成立，但坚不入盟，后来亦未入其他政党。

1907年，赴英留学[3] 。

1908年，入英国阿伯丁大学学法律、政治，兼攻逻辑学。1909年4月，他与同盟会员吴弱男在伦敦结婚，婚后入阿伯丁大学学政治经济兼攻逻辑学。留英期间，他常为国内报刊撰稿，介绍西欧各派政治学说，于立宪政治尤多发挥，对当时中国政坛很有影响。

1911年武昌起义胜利，章士钊携家眷从英国回国，对孙中山和辛亥革命给予了衷心的肯定和支持。应孙中山邀由英伦回国主持同盟会机关报《民立报》。因视同盟会不合西方政党标准，主张"毁(旧)党造(新)党说"，以施行政党内阁制，遭同盟会员反对，被斥为"保皇党"。章愤而辞职，应袁世凯之邀北上。袁赠巨宅，委以北京大学校长，未就。

1912年春抵南京，受黄兴、于右任之邀，任上海《民立报》主笔，兼江苏都督府顾问。7月，章在《民主报》上发表了《政党组织案》，主张将当时国内新有政党(包括同盟会)一律解散，在一段时间内各抒已见，然后根据不同政见分为两党，出而竞选，得多数拥护者，管理国家。这就是著名的"毁党造学说"。此论遭各方攻击，同盟会内部大哗，章士钊乃脱离《民主报》，于同年9月与王无生别创《独立周报》，继续议论时政，提出了民国政制究取法国制还是美国制等引起国人注意的问题。

1913年3月，袁世凯主使刺杀宋教仁反嫁祸于黄兴。章由此看出袁之险恶，乘隙逃离北京，前往上海，拜晤孙中山、黄兴，奉孙中山命，联岑春煊反袁，并草拟了《二次革命宣言》。7月由孙中山任命为讨袁军秘书长。"二次革命"失败后，章亡命日本。

1914年5月，在东京与陈独秀、谷钟秀等人创办《甲寅》月刊，章在第一期上发表《政本》一文，重申两党制的主张，提出执政党应借反对党之刺激而维持其进步[3] 。章倡言革新，反对专制，提倡共和，反对袁世凯，但反对暴力激进手段。批评革命党有"好同恶异"之弊，力主调和精神。

调和立国

调和立国论是章士钊思想成熟的标志，也是1910-1919年间其思想言论的基本线索。这也可以说是辛亥革命的重要思想总结。1962年，年过八旬的章士钊说:"今之论士，语涉辛亥革命，往往过于夸张，估计成功二字，溢量殆不知何许。"这么冷静的反思，他早在民国初年就开始了。[5]

因为言论不被国民党所采纳，他便挂冠而去;但他立即另办一个《独立周报》，继续履行舆论监督职责。在"二次革命"失败后，他逃亡日本，有了冷静总结和反思的好时机。在参与国民党重要政治派别欧事研究会活动的同时，他在自己创办和主编的《甲寅》杂志上，他提出和系统论述了"调和立国"论。这个理论批判的矛头主要指向袁世凯的专制统治，但也严肃地批评了以孙文为代表的激进主义错误，鼓吹建立以调和、宽容为基础的多元互动的社会运行机制。[4]

在他看来，专制是逆时代潮流的反动祸害。他写道:"专制者何?强人之同与己也。人莫不欲人之同于己，即莫不乐于专制。故专制者，兽欲也。遏此兽欲，使不得充其量，以为害于人群，必赖有他力以抗之。其在君主独裁之国，抗之以变，则为革命。抗之以常，则为立宪。抗之以无可抗，则为谏诤。""孟德斯鸠曰:'且专制之国，其性质恒喜同而恶异。彼以为，异者，乱之媒也。'……彼虽指宗教言，然专制与喜同连，到处可通。"他毫不含糊地认为，不管革命派有多少错误，以袁世凯为首的专制统治者的倒行逆施，其危害更加严重。

与此同时，他一再指斥另一种极端--"暴民专制"。他说:"往者清鼎已移，党人骤起，其所以用事，束缚驰骤卤莽灭裂之弊，随处皆有。国人乃皇皇然忧，以谓暴民终不足言治……"党人"未能注意于利益不同之点，极力为之调融，且挟其成见，出其全力，以强人同己，使天下人才尽出己党而后快。又其中有所谓暴烈分子者，全然不负责任，肆口漫骂，用力挤排，语若村妪，行同无赖，因之社会之情以伤，阴谋之局以起，则事实具陈，无可掩也。"

章士钊没有停留在现象层次。他指出，中外历史一再证明，走向极端，拒绝调和，必然带来灾难性的后果。民国初年，以批判态度观察政局发展的中国人为数不少，但能联系世界历史全局反复思考的却不多见。针对这样的现实，章氏认为思想和制度等方面都应以调和立国论为指导，作出相应的转变。他清醒地看到，空谈化同迎异，不能真正确立这样的风气和社会运行机制。关键要培养对抗力，从制度层面解决问题。[5]

以农立国

他提出"农国"论，几乎全盘否定了自己过去的社会政治理念。这是一个非常完整的反对现代化的理论。其要点是:中国一贯以农立国，必须坚持这个传统。抛弃一切与工商立国相关联的追求与制度。在政治领域，一反前期的主张，不要总统、国会、政党等等与工商国有关的一切制度。

他一再撰文，反复演讲，说民初以来政局混乱，战祸连绵，都是走错了路，把不切中国国情的制度搬到中国。"吾国祸乱相寻，自辛亥迄今十二年无宁日者，徒以大选无方，奸雄窃发已耳。不去选事，乱无由已……西土现制之有裨于吾者甚少……若夫英美式之国会，断乎无复自存之值。"选举、总统、国会、政党……通通不要。"一言以蔽之，吾为农国，不能妄采工业国之制度。"[5]

回归传统

进入20年代，章士钊的思想起了巨大变化。引人注目的是他坚决反对新文化运动。早在1919年9月，新文化运动进入高潮，章士钊已为文学和道德领域破旧立新深感忧虑。他说:"今人讲新文学，颇采报端之见，挥斥一切旧者，欲从文学上划出一新纪元，号之曰新。愚谓所见太狭，且亦决不可能。""今之社会道德，旧者破坏，新者未立，颇呈青黄不接之观……人心世道之忧。莫切于此。"因此，他认为:"新机不可滞，旧德亦不可忘，挹彼注此，逐渐改善，新旧相衔，斯成调和。"本来强调横向宽容的调和，转而注重纵向新旧融合。随后，反对新文化运动的态度更趋坚决。[5]

与此同时，章利用《甲寅》周刊强调反对新文学运动、新文化运动，反对白话文，反对"欧化"，引得骂声一片，但仍然我行我素。

1921年10月归来后，章士钊态度改变。以反对直线发展观为藉口，他断言:"所谓文明野蛮，不过循环蝉递"。"新旧并无一定之界限，何者为新，何者为旧，很难于断定……新旧是循环的，昔日以为新者，今日或视为旧，甲地以为旧者，乙地或反视为新。""故思想之进化，亦是循环的，并无新旧之不同。"于是，新文化运动全都是无事生非，有害无益。白话文在他看来更是"文词鄙俚，国家未灭，文字先亡"!简直是奇灾大祸。其恶果是:"躁妄者悍然莫明其非，谨厚者菑然丧其所守，父无以教子，兄无以诏弟，以言教化，乃全陷于青黄不接、辕辙背驰之一大恐慌也。

 Zhang Shizhao (1881-1973) was born in Shanhua County, Hunan Province, on March 20, 1881. His pen name is Huang Zhonghuang, Qingtong and Qiutong. He was the judicial and educational director of Duan Qirui's government in the Northern Ocean of the Republic of China, the political councillor of the National Government of the Republic of China, the member of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China, the Standing Committee of the National People's Political Consultative Conference, and the curator of the Central Literature and History Research Library. At the end of Qing Dynasty, he was the chief writer of Shanghai Su Bao. After 1911, he was a professor of Tongji University, a professor of Peking University, the president of Beijing Agricultural School, the Secretary-General of Guangdong Military Government, the representative of the North-South Conference and the South. After the founding of New China, he was a famous democrat, scholar, writer, educator and political activist. He was the deputy director of the Central Research Museum of Literature and History, the second and third CPPCC Standing Committee, and the third NPC Standing Committee.

 In 1881, Zhang Shizhao was born in Shanhua County, Hunan Province. His father Zhang Jin used to be Li Zheng in the countryside and later practised Chinese medicine. Zhang Shizhao was very diligent in private school.

When Zhang Shizhao was 13 years old, he bought a collection of Liu Zongyuan's essays in Changsha and studied Liu Wen.

At the age of 16, he worked as a child teacher at his relatives'home.

In 1901, he left home to Wuchang and sent to the Lianghu Academy of Wuchang, where he met Huang Xing. He later taught in Zhu Qijun's private school.

In March 1902, he entered Nanjing Lushi School to study military affairs. The following year, he went to Shanghai Patriotic Society. In May, he was the chief writer of Shanghai Su Bao, which published anti-Qing articles by Zhang Taiyan and others. It was seized in July. In August, he and Chen Duxiu, Zhang Ji and others founded the National Daily to establish the Mainland Book Translation and Printing Bureau. In the winter of the same year, Huang Xing and other organizations organized Huaxing Meeting to engage in anti-Qing activities.

In April 1903, the anti-Russian movement took place, and students in Shanghai went on strike. Zhang Shizhao, despite the dissuasion of Yu Mingzhen, the head of the school, led more than 30 Lu teachers to Shanghai, joined the Military and Civil Education Association organized by Cai Yuanpei and others, and served as a military director. Shortly afterwards, he was hired as the chief writer of Shanghai Su Bao and often made fierce revolutionary remarks. Therefore, he met Zhang Taiyan, Zhang Ji and Zou Rong. He was in the same mood and worshipped as a brother of different surnames. Among the four brothers, Zhang Taiyan, Zhang Ji and Zou Rong all had books that inspired the revolution. So Zhang Shizhao translated the Japanese book A Dream of Falling Flowers in Thirty-three Years by Miyazaki Yinzang into the book Sun Yixian, the Great Revolutionist, and linked Sun Zhi's alias "Zhongshan Qiao" with his surname. So in September 1903, it was published under the pseudonym of Huang Zhonghuang, from which Sun Yat-sen was known in China. In early July 1903, the Qing government seized the Su Bao and arrested seven people, including Zhang Taiyan and Zou Rong. Zhang Shizhao, who had to sponsor the case, was grateful to Yu Mingzhen, the general manager of Lushi School and Jiangsu Alternate Road. He was not investigated and was lucky to get away with it. On August 7, the National Daily was founded with Chen Duxiu and Zhang Ji, and Zhang Shizhao's precious photo collection continued to advocate revolution. In November 1903, he and Huang Xing went to Changsha from Shanghai to prepare for the Huaxing Society.

In February 1904, he and Yang Shouren established the Patriotic Association in Shanghai as Vice President. Yang Shouren is the president. In August 1904, the Huaxing Society decided to hold an uprising in Changsha on November 6 of that year. Zhang set up a secret office in Yu Qingli, Shanghai, to help secretly. Due to the lack of opportunity, failure occurs without initiation. In October, Huang Xing went to Shanghai and convened a meeting of Yang Shouren, Chen Tianhua, Zhang Shizhao, Zhang Ji and Yang Du to hold another righteous banner in Hubei and Nanjing. Afterwards, more than ten people, such as Zhang Ji and Zhang Shizhao, were arrested because of the destruction of Fahua Xing Hui's organs in Yuqingli, and the plan of rebellion failed to come true. Zhang Shizhao and others were rescued by Cai Yong's trustee and released on bail after being detained for more than 40 days. People who were released from prison were afraid of further investigation by the Qing officials and rushed eastward to Japan.

The Period of Studying Abroad

In 1905, he went to Tokyo Regular School to study English. Chapter reviews the past, thinking that he is "short-term and fragile", involving colleagues, feeling guilty, a reform to save the country for the sake of learning, is angry mechanics [3]. In August 1905, the League was established in Tokyo, Japan, but it was firmly non-aligned, and later did not join other political parties.

In 1907, he went to study in Britain [3].

In 1908, he joined the University of Aberdeen to study law, politics and logic. In April 1909, he married Wu Weinan, a member of the League, in London. After his marriage, he joined the University of Aberdeen to study politics, economics and logic. During his stay in Britain, he often wrote articles for domestic newspapers and magazines, introducing political theories of various factions in Western Europe. He played an important role in constitutional politics and had a great influence on Chinese political circles at that time.

After the victory of the Wuchang Uprising in 1911, Zhang Shizhao returned home with his family from England and gave his heartfelt affirmation and support to Sun Yat-sen and the 1911 Revolution. At Sun Yat-sen's invitation, Britain returned home to preside over the League organ newspaper Minli Paper. Because the alliance does not conform to the standard of Western political parties, it advocates "destroying (old) party building (new) party theory" to implement the administrative party cabinet system, which is opposed by the members of the alliance and denounced as "royalist party". Zhang resigned in anger and went north at the invitation of Yuan Shikai. Yuan presented the house to the president of Peking University, but failed.

In the spring of 1912, he arrived in Nanjing. At the invitation of Huang Xing and Yu Youren, he was the principal writer of Shanghai Minli Newspaper and consultant of Jiangsu Dudu Government. In July, Zhang published the Political Parties Organizational Case in the Daily of Democracy, advocating that all the new political parties (including the League) in China at that time should be disbanded and expressed their opinions for a period of time. Then, according to different political opinions, they should be divided into two parties and run for office, with the majority of their supporters running the country. This is the famous "theory of destroying the Party". In September of the same year, Zhang Shizhao and Wang Wusheng created the Independent Weekly newspaper, and continued to discuss current politics. He raised the issue of whether the Republican regime should be French or American.

In March 1913, the chief envoy of Yuan Shikai assassinated Song Jiaoren and turned the blame on Huang Xing. From this, we can see the danger of Yuan Zhi. He fled Beijing and went to Shanghai to meet Sun Yat-sen and Huang Xing. Under Sun Yat-sen's orders, he joined Cen Chunxuan in opposing Yuan and drafted the Declaration of the Second Revolution. Sun Yat-sen appointed Secretary-General of Yuan Jun in July. After the failure of the Second Revolution, Zhang destroyed Japan.

In May 1914, Jiayin was founded in Tokyo with Chen Duxiu and Gu Zhongxiu. In the first issue of this monthly magazine, Zhengben was published, reiterating the idea of the two-party system and proposing that the ruling party should maintain its progress by stimulating the opposition party. Zhang advocated innovation, opposed autocracy, advocated republicanism, and opposed Yuan Shikai, but opposed violent radical means. Criticizing the revolutionary party has the disadvantage of "likes, dislikes and dislikes", and strives to harmonize its spirit.